Knowledge-base of teaching and learning
The most prevalent competencies articulated in the advertisements were those related to the knowledge-base for teaching and learning. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), recognized as a cornerstone of the teaching profession, plays a pivotal role in how educators translate their understanding of subject matter into effective instruction. This connection between content and teaching was delineated in various extents within the advertisements. At its broadest, it was manifested in statements highlighting the multidisciplinary inherent of a class teacher’s teaching responsibilities, such as “we value the ability to teach all the subjects taught in primary school” (U). Additionally, certain advertisements provided more precise contextualization or specifications regarding the implementation of multi-subject teaching: “we expect you to be capable of teaching all subjects taught in first and second grade in primary education in a versatile and activity-based manner” (S).
More targeted expressions linked teaching and specific subjects. It was common in the advertisements to specify, for instance, that “the selected candidate is expected to have the skill to teach music, physical education, and crafts” (U). Often, these expressions were associated with expertise in art and physical education subjects (i.e. visual arts, music, crafts, physical education or home economics) or languages. Occasionally, rather than specifying it on a subject-by-subject basis, the teaching experience was linked to the aforementioned subject groups: “it is considered an advantage for the applicant to have skills in art and physical education subjects” (S), or “we require [...] language pedagogical expertise” (U). The most precise expressions focused teaching expertise even more narrowly on specific content areas, such as band activities and group music performance, or programming. This was most commonly observed in crafts, where expertise in either hard materials (technical work) or soft materials (textile work) were desired.
The MAP model also considers the integration of digital technology into pedagogy as an aspect of teacher knowledge. In this study, it was common for job advertisements to set requirements or preferences for technological proficiency in teaching. For instance, ads might express this as “we value expertise in digital pedagogy” (U), or “it is considered advantageous for the applicant to have the skill and pedagogical knowledge to diversely utilize information and communication technologies [ICT] in teaching” (S). However, technological knowledge was often mentioned beyond just instructional use, without direct connection to teaching. For example, applicants were often expected to have “versatile” (U), “up-to-date” (U), or “sufficient” (S) ICT skills. Expressions, such as “we also require proficiency in the use of ICT for teaching and administrative purposes” (R), emphasize the requirements related to digital knowledge that extends beyond teaching. The following detailed specification reflects technological skills related to social media and communication in addition to learning purposes: “we value modern ICT skills, for example, proficiency in Google and O365 environments, utilizing Instagram for communication, and skills in video editing” (U).
Pedagogical knowledge refers to proficiency in pedagogical principles and strategies that extend across different subjects. In this study, pedagogical knowledge included expressions related to pedagogy without specific connection to content or subjects, such as “the position requires good pedagogical expertise” (U) and “the selected candidate is expected to have versatile pedagogical expertise in accordance with the new curriculum” (R). The mastery of diverse methods (“we require you to master diverse, modern teaching and assessment methods” [S]) and “ability to work in various learning environments” (R) were also emphasized in many advertisements. Also, classroom management was often addressed, but usually quite succinctly (e.g., “we require from the applicant [...] good group management skills” [R]). Occasionally, however, knowledge of classroom management was described in more concrete terms: “they [students] also want teachers to have the skill and courage to intervene if someone disrupts the class or behaves poorly” (U).
Content knowledge, which refers to knowledge specific to a particular subject, such as facts, concepts, and theories, was notably lacking in the advertisements. This category encompassed statements related to proficiency in a certain language without explicit connection to teaching, like “proficiency in Russian resembling a native speaker is preferred” (U). Additionally, phrases such as “we appreciate diverse knowledge of children’s culture” (U), and “STEAM proficiency is considered advantageous for applicants” (U) were classified under content knowledge. However, with more flexible interpretation, these examples could have also been associated with teaching and thus placed within the realm of pedagogical content knowledge. This merely highlights the limited emphasis placed on the comprehension of the structure of the subject knowledge in job postings for class teachers.
Practical knowledge, in this study, included statements related to experience and evidence of practical actions in schools and classroom. Generally, advertisements valued, for example, “previous experience in the role of a class teacher” (U), “diverse teaching experience with different age groups” (R), and “experience working with children and young people” (U). More specific requirements or preferences for prior experience were linked to various aspects of a teacher’s work.
Firstly, advertisements set expectations for experience in collaboration (e.g. “experience in teamwork” [R] or “experience in [...] multiprofessional teamwork” [U]). Regarding collaboration, specific characteristics of work communities might have been detailed, as illustrated in the following extracts: “experience in working in a large comprehensive school is considered an advantage” (U) and “we value […] experience working in a bilingual (Finnish-Swedish) work community” (U). The most common form of collaboration highlighted in the advertisements was the experience in co-teaching or other forms of teacher collaboration and joint planning: “applicants are required to have experience in co-teaching” (U). A key aspect related to collaboration in many advertisements was experience in flexible teaching arrangements requiring collaboration: “experience in working in pairs, grade-independent teaching, mixed-age groups, and other flexible teaching arrangements is considered an advantage” (U).
Secondly, the advertisements set expectations for experience in inclusive (e.g., “we value experience in inclusive education” [R]) and multicultural schools (e.g., “experience in multicultural schools is considered advantageous” [U]). From the perspective of working in an inclusive school, the advertisements emphasized for example, experience in “working with students needing special support (learning difficulties and behavioral challenges)” (U) or “teaching students at different levels of three-tiered support” (U). Regarding experience working in multicultural schools, the job advertisements required or preferred experience in, for example, “teaching immigrant students” (U), “teaching multilingual students and interacting with their families” (U), or “preparatory education for basic education” (U).
Thirdly, the advertisements set expectations for experience in teaching specific grade levels or classes. The majority of these requirements required experience in teaching first and second grades in primary education (e.g. “we place particular value on long-term and continuous experience in first and second grade teaching” (S). Experience in multi-grade instruction, where a teacher instructs different grades in the same classroom, was also regularly considered advantageous as well as previous teaching experience in special classes that emphasize certain subjects (e.g. music or mathematics) or foreign language.
Fourthly, expectations were set regarding teaching experience related to specific content areas. In addition to individual subjects and subject groups (languages, art and physical education subjects and STEAM subjects), these expectations were related, for example, to environmental education (“applicants are expected to have experience in environmental education” [S]) or educational robotics (“experience in teaching robotics [VEX-IQ] and related competition activities is considered an advantage for applicants” [U]). Other expressions in the advertisements included experiences with a certain approach to teaching (e.g. inquiry-based learning, phenomenon-based learning, and active learning), developmental projects, digital learning platforms, distance learning, and promoting student council activities.
Contextual knowledge refers to understanding the sociocultural context in which the teaching occurs. This was discerned from statements addressing familiarity with the educational sector locally and nationally, such as “good knowledge of the field and its development is considered an advantage” (U), and the principles adhered to by Finnish schools, for instance, “we value [...] practical insights into the strengthening of the local school policy” (U). However, the contextual knowledge in the advertisements mainly revolved around understanding the framework that the curriculum provides for education in Finland (“we value familiarity with the guiding obligations, values, and conception of learning of the new curriculum” [R]) as well as the support for learning in Finnish schools (“we require that you are familiar with the structures and practices of the three-tiered support system” [U]). In many advertisements, knowledge of the support system was demonstrated through familiarity with support-related pedagogical documents: “it is advantageous for the applicant [...] to be able to draft pedagogical documents” (U).
Cognitive thinking skills
In terms of cognitive thinking skills, the job advertisements primarily focused on expression related to creativity. For example, “everyday creativity” (U) and “implementing creative pedagogical solutions” (U) were appreciated. Additionally, expressions like “a boldly innovative teacher” (U), “a teacher rich in ideas” (U), and “a teacher with good imagination” (U), were all associated with creativity. Other cognitive abilities found in the advertisements were linked to higher-order thinking skills, underscoring the significance of rapid learning (“we consider an advantage […] the ability to grasp new concepts swiftly” [S]), and critical multiperspective thinking (“the applicant possesses the ability to think from various angles” [U]).
Social skills
Social skills were mentioned in the advertisement as such (e.g. “we are seeking a teacher with […] good social skills” (U)]. However, more commonly, the requirements for social skills were directed towards relational skills, especially from the perspective of collaborative abilities, often combining these in the following manner: “we expect excellent relational and collaboration skills” (U). Desired collaboration skills were delineated on three perspectives. Firstly, collaboration skills were associated with collaboration not only within various teacher teams and between classroom teachers and special education teachers, but also among the entire staff: “we hope you have the ability to work flexibly in collaboration with classroom teachers, special education teachers, school assistants, and other staff” (U). Secondly, collaboration skills were linked to cooperation with homes and guardians: “applicants are expected to have the ability to engage in constructive cooperation between home and school” (U). Thirdly, collaboration skills were connected to collaboration with other unspecified “external partners and stakeholders” (R).
Teachers’ social skills encompass responding to diversity within the school community. In the advertisements, diversity competency mainly consisted of requirements related to having a positive attitude towards diversity and respectfully interacting with students of diverse characteristics and ages: “we hope the teacher has the ability to encounter diversity while respecting all types of learners” (U). Giving individual attention to students (e.g., “the position requires [...] the ability to consider the student as an individual” [R]) and identifying and supporting their individual strengths (e.g., “you recognize the strengths of the student and know how to reinforce them” [U]) were also considered as important diversity competencies, as well as promotion of student participation (e.g. “we also value giving students genuine opportunities to participate and influence” [U]).
Advertisements rarely set explicit requirements for teachers’ intercultural competence and interaction. Occasionally, it was expected that teachers have “good skills to work in a multicultural school” (S) or “strong expertise in the everyday life of a multicultural school” (U) without further defining the required competencies. Additionally, demands for teachers’ language awareness posed by a multilingual work environment were highlighted in some ads: “we are seeking [...] an expert familiar with multiculturalism and language awareness” (U). Requirements for teachers’ emotional competencies, such as the ability to perceive, understand, regulate, and express emotions, were not discernible in the advertisements.
Personal orientations
Personal orientations were primarily built around motivational orientations, but also personal dispositions and professional beliefs, values and ethics were recognized in the advertisements. Motivational orientations refer to the interest and dedication towards the teaching profession. Teachers who are “dedicated”, “committed” and “excited about their work” (U) were frequently sought. The ads referred to intrinsic value i.e. that person enjoys the basic features of the profession, such as working with children (“you enjoy working with children” [R]) or teaching a wide range of primary school subjects (“we appreciate the desire to teach as many primary school subjects as possible” [U]). However, these motivations were often specified in job ads, focusing on desires like teaching specific grade levels (“we hope for applicants who are willing to work in first and second grade in primary education” [S]), teaching particular subjects to other grades as well (“additionally, we require willingness to teach music” [U]), and a desire to work in co-teaching arrangements (“we are seeking a classroom teacher who is eager to implement co-teaching” [U]).
Motivational orientations also encompass interest and dedication to professional development. Some ads highlighted a positive attitude towards personal progress: “you find your work meaningful and want to develop within it” [U]. However, a larger portion of the ads focused on requirements for developing teaching and community generally. Development requirements was linked not only to improving teaching in general (“applicants are expected to demonstrate genuine commitment to the improvement of teaching” [U]) but also to specific contexts (“willingness to develop in first and second grade teaching in primary education is considered an advantage [U]), subjects (“we consider advantageous […] a desire to improve the teaching of physical education in the school” [U]) or themes (“we expect a positive attitude towards versatile development of ICT usage in teaching” [R]). From a community perspective, development requirements were associated with aspects like operational culture, collaboration, interaction, and communality: “We are looking for […] a burning enthusiasm to develop a functional, participatory, and dialogical culture of collaborative learning in our school” (S).
Personal dispositions refer to an individual’s inherent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving across various situations and over time. Job advertisements outlined a range of required or preferred personal traits that encapsulated the inherent tendencies of teachers. Firstly, the ads addressed characteristics related to positivity, such as being cheerful, lively, enthusiastic, fun, humorous, and friendly. Secondly, they emphasized the importance of the teacher’s activity and initiative. Thirdly, flexibility was highlighted: “we value a flexible approach to work so that everyday life in our small community runs smoothly” (U). Fourthly, the ads stressed the need for teachers to take responsibility and act responsibly: “we require [...] responsibility to follow through on tasks” (U). Other personal dispositions mentioned less frequently included attributes such as ambition, high work ethic, and being solution-oriented.
Professional beliefs included expressions linked to desired conception of learning. Key requirements for the conception of learning emphasized its positivity, holistic approach, and modernity: “we hope to find a teacher who has adopted a modern learning conception” (U). Values and ethics were tied with commitment to values of the school or city: “applicant must align with our school’s values, which include respectful interaction and fostering a thriving and safe community” (U). While values were specified in the previous extracts, it was more typical to generally state the requirement to align with the unspecified values of the school and conduct oneself accordingly: “we expect the successful candidate to commit to the values of the school” (U). Values and ethics also included expressions in which teachers were expected to value or recognize something as important: “the selected classroom teacher understands the importance of structuring […] and group cohesion for students’ learning and well-being, and for them, the joy of children’s learning and positive pedagogy is particularly meaningful” (U).
Requirements related to self-conception or professional identity were not identified in the advertisements.
Professional well-being
References to professional well-being were scarce and remained rather general, lacking specific mentions of stress management strategies or resilience. Requirements included, for example, “well-being-oriented approach to work” (U) or “ability to act as well-being coordinator in our school” (U). When a slightly more interpretative approach was undertaken, demands posed for the ability to foster a positive work environment, such as “we hope for a teacher who contributes to a positive work atmosphere with their own efforts” (U) were also considered indicative of abilities related to professional well-being.
Discussion
This study aimed to explore the individual teacher competencies outlined in job advertisements for class teacher positions in Finland. By employing the MAP model (Metsäpelto et al., 2022) the findings highlighted the prevalence of individual competencies related to knowledge base of teaching and learning, social skills, and personal orientations in these job advertisements. The findings resonated with similar competencies identified in prior research on teacher job advertisements concerning knowledge related to digital skills (Talmo et al., 2020), social skills including intercultural understanding (Bailey et al., 2013; Selvi, 2010) and personal orientations, such commitment and values (Stephenson & Carter, 2014). However, the adoption of MAP model as a framework for theory-driven analysis significantly facilitated a more structured and deductive approach to understanding the requirements and preferences set forth for teacher competencies by employers compared to the previous studies. In contrast to teacher education curricula, where social skills and personal orientations received little attention (Metsäpelto et al., 2021), these competencies appeared prominently in job advertisements. Meanwhile, cognitive skills—central in teacher education curricula—were notably underrepresented in the job advertisements. Thus, despite some shared elements (such as the emphasis on a knowledge base for teaching and learning and the minimal focus on professional well-being), different aspects of teacher expertise seem to be prioritized in teacher recruitment compared to the learning objectives of teacher education programs.
The prominence of non-cognitive competencies such as social skills and personal orientations alongside the knowledge base in job advertisements can be interpreted as reflecting the adoption of values-based recruitment strategies. These strategies, which prioritize non-cognitive competencies, have been implemented in various professional fields outside of education, including public service and healthcare professions (Klassen et al., 2021). Values-based recruitment strategies are rooted in employee selection theory, which emphasizes the importance of fit between individuals and their environments, such as organizations and occupations (Darrow & Behrend, 2017). These strategies involve tailoring the recruitment process to attract individuals whose values and goals align with those of the organization and incorporating these core values into the recruitment process starting from the attraction stage, where values are communicated to applicants through job advertisements. There are several benefits associated with values-based recruitment strategies in terms of fostering long-term commitment and satisfaction among employees. For instance, De Cooman et al. (2009) found that teachers who perceived congruence between their values and those of their schools were less likely to feel frustration and leave the profession.
An inevitable question arising from the findings is why certain individual teacher competencies, which are recognized as important in the literature, were notably scarce in the job advertisements. Naturally, the fact that cognitive thinking skills, for example, did not dominate the advertisements can be viewed positively, as teaching necessitates a diverse range of competencies beyond purely cognitive abilities, and evidence supporting a strong relationship between general academic abilities and teacher effectiveness is lacking (Bardach & Klassen, 2020). From the perspective of non-cognitive competencies, a study by Klassen et al. (2018) highlighted that educational professionals in different cultures, including Finland, consistently judged resilience as one of the most important non-cognitive competencies for effective teaching. Still, resilience, categorized as a part of professional well-being in the MAP model (Metsäpelto et al., 2022), was not identified in this study at all. What could explain the disparities between these findings and earlier literature?
One possible explanation is that job advertisement research has the ability to reveal disparities between the skills emphasized in previous literature and those sought by employers (Rios et al., 2020). On the other hand, it’s also possible that while educational leaders recruiting teachers may indeed value resilience, or metacognition, articulating them in job advertisements can be challenging or unconventional. These competencies may not conform to the language typically used in such ads or may conflict with the nature of the advertisements. It is crucial to acknowledge that job postings serve not only to recruit personnel but also to market the institution. Consequently, the language employed may incorporate marketing-related perspectives that reflect a desired future state rather than the current reality (e.g., Harper, 2012). Therefore, highlighting competencies related to well-being in job advertisements, might easily be associated with challenges in the job or work environment, which could conflict with the goal of portraying the positions in a positive light. Alternatively, evaluating these competencies during the recruitment process poses its own challenges, which could explain why they are often omitted. This could especially hold true for internal, subjective, and dynamic processes within individuals, such as self-conception or professional identity.
Another intriguing question arises from the observation regarding the fewer requirements related to teacher competencies in rural municipalities compared to urban and semi-urban municipalities. This observation can be attributed to at least three potential factors. Firstly, it’s possible that in rural municipalities, where job responsibilities may not be as specialized, recruitment tasks are carried out by individuals such as principals or teachers alongside their regular duties. Consequently, there may be less time and resources available to dedicate to recruitment efforts, including writing job advertisements. This could result in less detailed and specific advertisements compared to those in urban and semi-urban municipalities. Secondly, there may be a belief that overly detailed job postings could deter potential applicants. Therefore, in rural areas where there are more challenges with the availability of qualified teachers (e.g., Bernelius & Huilla, 2021; Manner, 2023), imposing overly strict requirements for individual teacher competencies may be perceived as risky, leading to job advertisements being formulated with lighter requirements. Thirdly, it is also possible that the actual demands for the profession are more versatile outside the rural municipalities, for example, due to the greater diversity of students, and the advertisements simply reflect this difference.
The theoretical implications of this paper are intertwined with the development of the teacher competency frameworks, particularly the MAP model (Metsäpelto et al., 2022) adopted in this study. The observations made in the analysis advocate for certain updates to the model, such as incorporating established teacher knowledge extensions, like technological knowledge (TPACK, Mishra & Koehler, 2006) more prominently and explicitly into the model as its own domain of teacher knowledge rather than incorporating it into Pedagogical Content Knowledge. However, when developing these frameworks, it is also crucial to consider the extent to which teachers within a school need the same competencies, or whether it would be more beneficial to emphasize the diversity of competencies within the teaching community, allowing them to be mobilized as needed (Smestad & Gillespie, 2020). The practical implications of the results are related to the development of teacher education and recruitment strategies. The findings enable the evaluation of teacher education goals and content from the perspective of employers in the field. The results can help identify potential mismatches and thus promote the development of both initial and continuing teacher education and strengthen the connection between teacher education and schools. From the perspective of developing recruitment strategies, the research findings are useful, for instance, for employers when assessing their own teacher job advertisements.
While the study aimed to address the methodological shortcomings observed in earlier research, for example, by collecting a more extensive dataset than in average job advertisement research (see Harper, 2012; Kim & Angnakoon, 2016; Mankki, 2023), and by carefully acknowledging the seasonal variation in teacher recruitment, it still had several limitations. We focused solely on Finnish job advertisements, although cross-national comparisons would have been fruitful to illustrate the variation in teacher competencies associated with national and cultural contexts. The absence of a theory-driven approach in previous teacher job advertisement studies led to the inclusion of the MAP model as a framework for this study. However, the use of alternative competency models (e.g., Baumert & Kunter, 2013) or frameworks for non-cognitive competencies identified across cultures (Klassen et al., 2018) would have been justified for a deductive approach and would likely lead to different results. Additionally, incorporating further inductive analysis might have added nuance to the findings. The collected advertisements were unevenly distributed across various municipal categories: the vast majority originated from urban municipalities. This, while reflecting the distribution of teacher recruitment in Finland, may have distorted the examination of differences.
Further investigation is required to gain better understanding about teacher recruitment and associated trends. With the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2024) projecting a need to recruit 44 million new teachers globally by 2030 to meet educational targets for primary and secondary education, there exists a need to clarify and comprehensively understand what individual teacher competencies are valued among employers in different cultures, regions (e.g. rural versus urban areas) and sectors (e.g. private versus public sector). For this purpose, the analysis of job advertisements serves as a valuable tool, especially when integrated with other research methods. In future research, it could be valuable to explore the perspectives of individuals who have drafted teacher job advertisements, using their original ads as prompts in interviews. This approach may offer deeper insights into the reasoning behind the structure of these advertisements and the factors that influence their content. Overall, it is crucial to see educational researchers collaborating with education organizations and employers to develop high-quality recruitment strategies, which include up-to-date, justified, and relevant job advertisements in terms of competency requirements. Additionally, certain expression from the data, such as “burning enthusiasm”, may reflect the subjectification of work, which requires employees to be deeply passionate about their work (Korhonen et al., 2023). This underscores the need for further investigation into the subjectification of teachers’ work and its manifestation in recruitment practices.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by the Foundation for Municipal Development under Grant 20210133 and the Research Council of Finland under Grant 358924.
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