Towards a practice-based approach to public innovation – Apollonian and Dionysian practice-approaches

This paper discusses how a practice-based approach to public innovation can provide an alternative, critical means of looking at public innovation. It unravels two ways practices can exist in relation to public innovation: Apollonian and Dionysian practiceapproaches. The Apollonian practice-approach is purposeful, speaking of the actors’ plans and interests and the rules of the game. In contrast, the Dionysian is a more spontaneous, bricolage-like approach to innovation that gathers people in an open space of innovation. Given these contrasting approaches further illustrated through two case vignettes, the paper argues that public innovation transpires not only through purposeful practices and plans but also more contextual public services changes. Research needs to capture both of these approaches and explore their impact on innovation. The paper concludes by outlining a research strategy for investigating practice-approaches in public service innovation and how a practice-based approach can add to our understanding of public service innovation.


Introduction
Public innovation literature tends to describe innovation as consensusoriented processes that engage various stakeholders in developing new, joint solutions to common problems (Torfing, 2016;Wegrich, 2019). The literature describes several activities of co-creating, co-constructing, co-innovating, coproducing and co-designing public services in light of new networked and collaborative governance arrangements involving multiple actors (Bryson et al., 2017;Osborne et al., 2016).
However, to not lose sight of the rich interests and experiences that actors invest in these practices and relationships, as well as the risks they run, there is a need to find research vocabulary that captures and identifies the wider practices of innovation and collaboration, including the potential tensions and dynamics between them (Fuglsang and Rønning, 2015).
Accordingly, this paper discusses how a practice-based approach to public innovation can provide an alternative, critical way of looking at public innovation. The paper explores how such an approach avoids some pitfalls of stressing only the normative and consensus-oriented descriptions of innovation. There is a need to describe the wider context of innovation.
Building on previous research on innovation, the paper further proposes to distinguish between two practice-approaches to innovation, which, for the purpose of the paper, are referred to as Apollonian and Dionysian practiceapproaches.
A practice-based approach takes organised activities as the unit of analysis (Nicolini and Monteiro, 2017). Practices are theorised as routinised ways of doing things that order heterogeneous elements into coherent sets (Gherardi, 2006). Practices hang together via bodily and mental activities, emotions, material things, understandings, know-how (Reckwitz, 2002) and teleoaffective structures (Schatzki, 2016). Innovation integrates these elements in new ways to form new practices.
Taking an innovation-as-practice approach contributes to public innovation research by exploring innovation as an outcome of any intervention that has a significant bearing on practices (Cass and Shove, 2017). Since practices are intertwined with other practices in complex ways, interventions that affect practices and may lead to innovation could come from multiple directions. For example, medical doctors' or schoolteachers' practices depend on both The Apollonian practice-approach is a structured approach whereby innovation is contained in formalised processes and plans within a practice context. The Dionysian practice-approach is a more playful, spontaneous and bricolage-like approach to innovation that brings people together in an open space of innovation. The two metaphors are ideal types used as sensitising devices to bring the practice dynamics of innovation to the fore.
The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 describes how innovation is defined in the literature, situating the paper in the tradition of networked/collaborative innovation. Section 3 focuses on the practice-based approach, which conceptualises four (Apollonian and Dionysian) practiceapproaches to innovation. Section 4 presents two brief case vignettes to situate the practice-based perspective in a practical context. The concluding section discusses the paper's contribution and future avenues for research.

Innovation in the Public Sector
Innovation is usually defined as the realisation of a new idea in practice such that it has an impact on an organisation or in the market. According to the innovation research tradition (cf. Oslo Manual;OECD, 2005), an innovation needs not to be new to society to count as innovation. However, it must be perceived as new by a significant number of relevant actors in an organisation (Hartley, 2006). Innovation represents step-changes or 'jumps' in the way problems are viewed and solved (Hartley, 2006;Sundbo, 1997) and must be perceived by key stakeholders as a way of changing practice in a significant NJSR -Nordic Journal of Social Research Vol. 12, 2021 Special issue: Public sector Innovation -Conceptual and Methodological Implications and lasting way to be considered innovation. Innovations can, however, be small, incremental step-changes or larger, radical changes. Finally, innovation is not the same as improvementan innovation may or may not be perceived as an improvement.
Innovation has been described as driven by single entrepreneurs as well as research and development; however, this paper adopts an understanding of innovation as open, interactive, distributed processes involving many actors who change over time (Fuglsang, 2008). Service innovation processes are also described in the literature as combinations of 1) structured, formalised and sequential processes and 2) more informal and emergent processes (Skålén et al., 2015). In the private sector, innovation can be driven by the interpretations of management and employees of market changes and competitive opportunities. In the public sector, innovation can be driven by fiscal constraints, the political system and the demands of users/citizens for high-quality public services, as well as employees' problem-solving activities (Fuglsang and Rønning, 2015).
The public sector has traditionally been regarded as bureaucratic, professionoriented and not very innovative, with silos between different areas and tasks that make it difficult to adopt outside ideas and innovations and significantly create step-changes that change the rules of the game. However, lately, there has been a greater focus on innovation in the public sector as a special way of developing policies, public services and public value.
The literature on public innovation links innovation to three governance paradigms (Hartley, 2005;Torfing and Triantafillou, 2013). The first is traditional public administration (TPA), where innovations come about as large universal innovations (Hartley, 2005) developed by policymakers. The second governance-innovation nexus is new public management (NPM), which represents the introduction of management and competition principles from the private sector; innovation concerns changing organisational form. Finally, there is the newer type of network-based governance (Hartley, 2005), where innovation takes place on all levels through interactive and networked processes involving many interdependent actors across sectors. This paper assumes the relevance of the latter approach.
The literature further describes collaboration as a driver of public innovation (Sørensen and Torfing, 2012;Torfing, 2019). Relevant innovations are more 5 NJSR -Nordic Journal of Social Research Vol. 12, 2021 Special issue: Public sector Innovation -Conceptual and Methodological Implications likely to emerge from exchanges of experiences, ideas and opinions among interdependent organisational actors than single actors alone (Torfing, 2019).
A critique of this approach, however, suggests that collaboration can lead to conflicts of interest or create over-alignment among actors. Neither is good for innovation as it prevents action or hinders critical dialogue concerning change (Wegrich, 2019). Notably, public employees are not easily mobilised for collaborative innovation processes and do not quickly, spontaneously or simultaneously make sense of new, innovative roles. It has been suggested that leadership is a key activity that may provide the overall narratives of change and that leaders can act as convenors of relevant actors, facilitators and catalysts of innovation processes (Torfing, 2019). Nevertheless, a better understanding and analysis of the relationship between collaboration and innovation is still lacking. What processes of collaboration and coordination can spur innovation, as seen from a practice-based perspective?
The concepts of collaborative innovation, networked governance and new public governance are closely related to several other concepts that also emphasise co-creation activities between relevant actors. The literature mentions different activities of co-production, co-creation, co-design, coinitiation, co-construction, co-innovation and value co-creation (Osborne et al., 2016;Voorberg et al., 2015). One contribution from the literature involves emphasising the user's role as a citizen and service recipient (Grönroos, 2019;Osborne, 2018;Osborne et al., 2016). In service production, the user must do part of the work, such as schoolchildren doing their homework. Co-production can also involve more deliberate, organised and rule-based forms of user participation in service delivery. Some authors distinguish between co-creation and co-production. Co-creation denotes co-innovation with users, whereas coproduction denotes co-implementation of services (Voorberg et al., 2015). The literature also draws on the service marketing literature to further capture how users can invite the service provider into his/her value-creation process (Grönroos, 2019;Osborne, 2018), such as a patient telling a doctor about a treatment's value or loss of value. How public innovation activities capture users' value creation, given the asymmetric power relations in public services, provides a further puzzle concerning networked and collaborative innovation.

Practice-based Approach to Innovation
A practice-based approach stresses the messy reality of everyday life and the actual practices of innovation, emphasising the difficulties in containing the NJSR -Nordic Journal of Social Research Vol. 12, 2021 Special issue: Public sector Innovation -Conceptual and Methodological Implications knowledge, values and interests involved in an innovation process within a single practice structure (Fuglsang, 2018) as innovation is dependent on and affects various intertwined practices. In the recent practice-based literature (building on Anthony Giddens and Pierre Bourdieu), practices are defined as ways of doing, saying and ordering heterogeneous elements into coherent sets (Gherardi, 2006) established over time. They hang together through bodily and mental activities, emotions, material things, understandings, knowhow (Reckwitz, 2002), and teleoaffective structures, that is, socially acceptable ends, beliefs and tasks (Schatzki, 2002). They are also described as being constituted by procedures, background understandings and emotionally charged engagements integrated into a unified practice (Echeverri and Skålén, 2011;Warde, 2005). Practices evolve and transpire in organisational life in and around organisations. They are stable and mutually coordinated over time and contain deep and partly tacit knowledge on how to define and solve problems.
However, practices can be complex and 'compound' (Warde, 2015), that is, influenced by multiple underpinnings, which makes the coordination of individual performances and collective practices difficult (Warde, 2015) since practices are developed and reformulated in social and individual contexts.
The outcome of a practice can be fuzzy and unpredictable on account of these intersections. The actors involved must gain access to knowledge about how a practice can be carried out from other practitioners; and they rely on individual tastes, habits and resources, as well as those of others. Knowledge about how a practice should be performed is not necessarily a clearly formulated system of ideas on which everyone agrees and is available in its entirety and can be maintained consistently. Sometimes, practitioners must improvise without solid ideas about how a practice should be carried out. Furthermore, different practices mutually intersect in wider practice-bundle arrangements (Schatzki, 2016) and where many new constellations are emerging. Pantzar and Shove (2010) describe innovation as the integration of mental images, skills and material resources to form new practices. Actors may draw on congruent or incongruent elements of practices, which may create or destroy the intended value of a practice (Echeverri and Skålén, 2011), for example, when different perceptions of a practice clash.
These ideas illustrate that practices must be understood as incomplete, dynamic, collective and intertwined phenomena. They evolve in constrained but pragmatic ways as actors attempt to create and re-create the value and 7 NJSR -Nordic Journal of Social Research Vol. 12, 2021 Special issue: Public sector Innovation -Conceptual and Methodological Implications purpose inherent to a practice (e.g. the value of playing music or providing home-help to an elderly person). Innovation can be understood as interventions that lead to the creation of new practices, but innovation processes are not necessarily contained and stabilised inside-out in one single clear practice structure. The scope for practice development differs from context to context, raising questions about how the contributions of various actors and interventions in practice development can be effectively described.
Thus, practice-based theory potentially provides an alternative understanding of innovation as something that transpires in many types of activities rather than in structured innovation processes. What the innovation concept adds to the lens through which we view practice is the notion that certain interventions can introduce 'significant differences into the world' (Schatzki 2019, p. 82).
Whether they count as innovations is, however, dependent on whether the relevant actors ascribe such meaning to them.
The distinction between the Apollonian and the Dionysian practice-approaches to innovation can be utilised to illustrate two types of approaches for developing and implementing innovations. This distinction has a long theoretical history. It has been used in organisational research (cf. McGillivray, 2005;Westwood, 2004) to describe two extreme organisational experiences in governance and self-governance: the controlled and the subversive. The concepts have also been used to describe the social trend for youth culture to worship the Dionysian principle (Maffesoli, 1998). Likewise, it has been used in anthropology to describe certain cultures' celebration of breaking from cognitive routines (Benedict, 1961). For Nietzsche (2000), the Apollonian and Dionysian approaches referred to artistic practices of creation that mimic dreams or intoxication, respectively represented by the visual arts and music.
However, in some of these different approaches, metaphysical generalisations are prevalent.
For the purposes of this paper, the concepts are used more metaphorically as labels for two public innovation practice-approaches. These metaphors advantageously capture the complex interdependence between the contained and subversive dimensions of innovation. The Apollonian approach represents a structured, controlled approach to innovation within a practice through which innovation can occur along controlled sequential stages. The Dionysian approach signifies a more spontaneous, bricolage-like approach to innovation that brings people together in an open space of innovation, potentially in a more rebellious manner. The Apollonian practice-approach can describe NJSR -Nordic Journal of Social Research Vol. 12, 2021 Special issue: Public sector Innovation -Conceptual and Methodological Implications processes of innovation in which actors discipline themselves to be oriented towards specific structures of ideas and purposes of change. Conversely, in the Dionysian approach, actors are less contained by the structures and ideas inherent to certain practices. Instead, these form a heterogeneous, compound set of resources and underpinnings that actors can draw upon.
It is tempting to describe innovation in TPA as dominated by the Apollonian practice-approach, since public innovation is politically controlled and governed by public rules and ethos and professional practice-systems.
However, whether this accurately describes how policies and practices are formed in any organisation is questionable (Carstensen, 2011). Nonetheless, the Apollonian approach can still drive professional actions. Actors who see themselves as subsumed under injunctions of publicly recognised practices may aim to develop and change them in a structured manner.
However, the Dionysian metaphor describes the complexity of practices and difficulties in creating new practices in a straight-forward way since innovation has the potential to cause turbulence (Ansell and Trondal, 2018), chaotic states, contradictions and paradoxes with which employees and managers must deal. It also denotes the attraction to other injunctions, such as aesthetic practices (Strati, 1992)e.g. smells, tastes or visual impressionsthat attract or repel practitioners. For instance, Gherardi (2009, p. 543) reported how, in a study of US nursing homes, it appeared that staff members were routinely required to perform tasks that they viewed as repugnant and disgusting, such as the removal of faeces. Such aesthetic aspects can be seen as organisational life facts that affect the approach and resolution of problems.
To nuance the framework somewhat, it is relevant to subdivide the Dionysian innovation approach into three aspects: the pragmatic, aesthetic and subversive. Table 1 summarises these four aspects of innovation processes (one Apollonian and three Dionysian). Following the general literature on innovation, because we assume that innovation takes place as a collective process, it is relevant, for example, to develop categories for how actors in these approaches potentially align around a common innovation activity; how the practice-approaches organise the innovation process; what kinds of innovation leadership and power they provide to support the innovation process; and the imagined impact of these innovation processes, (e.g. whether they produce incremental or systemic/radical innovations). Following the above reflections, in the Apollonian practice, actors align around a practice 9 NJSR -Nordic Journal of Social Research Vol. 12, 2021 Special issue: Public sector Innovation -Conceptual and Methodological Implications and structure of ideas (e.g. a professional practice or broader teleoaffective structures), and the innovation process is contained within this structure of practice. In the pragmatic (Dionysian) approach, actors align around a common set of resources, and the innovation process is about solving problems on the spot more informally, thus building structures from events in a bricolage-like manner. In the aesthetic (Dionysian) approach, actors assemble around a common taste, and the innovation process constitutes joyful or distasteful events. In the subversive (Dionysian) approach, actors provoke changes, thus leading to new unpredictable innovations.

Case Vignettes
The method applied for the case-vignettes was a qualitative-interpretative one, meaning that an exploratory research strategy was applied. The case study approach was undertaken as a means of asking 'how' and 'why' questions, allowing for investigation of the broader setting and context of a particular phenomenon beyond the single practice (Flyvbjerg, 2006). Interviews were conducted with core actors in two case organisations (Table 2), and key documents and videos were analysed. Interviews were taped and partly transcribed. Respondents were asked to talk about incidents and experiences involving innovation, following a phenomenological-interpretivist research tradition (Fuglsang, 2017). Case reports were written for the two cases and approved by the case organisations.
The two case vignettes, as presented here, are not full case studies but illustrative cases used to locate the framework in a practical context, enabling further reflections on future research avenues. The focus was on investigating the experiences of innovation in the case organisations. The cases were selected as part of an EU H2020 project on value co-creation in public services (see Disclaimer). Here, public services were interpreted in a broad sense both as specific service functions produced or co-produced by publicsector organisations and, more broadly, as public tasks that can also be developed and carried out by external actors.

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NJSR -Nordic Journal of Social Research Vol. 12, 2021 Special issue: Public sector Innovation -Conceptual and Methodological Implications One semi-structured interview with the 1) the CEO and 2) Design and Method Director from the LLorganisation.
One semi-structured interview with a Chief Consultant at a University Hospital collaborating with the LL-organisation.
One semi-structured interview with the Design and Method Director from the LLorganisation.
One semi-structured interview with the Senior Project Leader from the LLorganisation.
One semi-structured interview with the CEO and founder.
One semi-structured interview with a person employed on special flexible conditions (supported by the Government).
One semi-structured interview with 1) the Director of Communications and 2) the department manager of the collaborating partner organisation.

Documents
A written description of the innovation methodology of the living lab, provided by the LL-organisation (31 pages).
A written description of the specific LL project around a hospital, provided by the LLorganisation (79 pages).
Three videos where the CEO and founder lectures about the organisation and its worldview.
Three documents describing the organisation and its partners.
An article authored by a journalist.
The organisation's website.

Notes/observations
Notes from a kick-off meeting.
Observation of a guided tour in the neighbourhood, including the activity house where the organisation is located.
NJSR -Nordic Journal of Social Research Vol. 12, 2021 Special issue: Public sector Innovation -Conceptual and Methodological Implications The cases were selected based on the following criteria. Both organisations work with collaborative innovation processes and see themselves as part of wider systemic changes creating value for society at large (i.e., public value for society). Both case organisations are private organisations working in the context of public innovation. Thus, they are believed to be critical cases of intersecting practices. The two organisations also differ in some important respects, thereby presenting the robustness of the data across case contexts.
Case 1 is an organisation that works directly within the public innovation sector. Case 2 is an organisation that works more independently, with a vision of producing societal/public value by collaborating with public and private enterprises

Case 1 -Transforming Public Health Care
Case 1 studied a consultancy house that has developed a distinct methoddriven approach to public innovation to spur innovation in public health. It has evolved in the context of a middle-sized Danish municipality. The method is very structured and comprises three innovation labs: a core lab involving key decision-makers from host organisations in the initial set-up of an innovation process; a trusted user lab engaging employees and citizens in service design processes to develop solutions to the strategic problems outlined by decisionmakers in the core lab; and a scale lab for co-implementing innovations with real users.
The case study included an innovation lab set up in a smaller town and its hospital to change health care priorities and solutions. The process was prepared in consultation with the main stakeholders, the hospital and the municipality. In this case, citizens were selected to become part of three 'street labs' from different parts of the town. Informational meetings were held with citizens, and a dinner was organised as a community event. The street labs became the basis for involving citizens in formulating 13 insights and 4 visions of health care. Citizens from the street labs further tested possible solutions to these visions created in collaboration with the local university and the hospital.

Apollonian Approach
Case 1  The case organisation thus positioned itself as a catalyst for such overall changes, albeit within the overall structure of a predesigned method that ensures that the main stakeholders control the process. By collaborating with public health organisations, it aims to develop new and distinctive solutions that have a bearing on people's practices. As a consultancy house, the case organisation specialises in organising an innovation process professionally. It essentially argues that there is a need to involve experts to organise and control systematic innovation in public innovation processes in order to significantly impact practices.

Dionysian-pragmatic Approach
However, the innovation process is not easily controlled. A more open and pragmatic approach is emphasized because the journey towards the overall goal is highly uncertain, and outcomes may be blurred. The municipality, which is one of the main stakeholders, is not easy to convince; reference must be made to potential financial benefits: We try walking into the City Council and say: '

Dionysian-aesthetic Approach
This approach to innovation is influenced by more aesthetic practices, meaning that it is difficult to just argue for the systematised innovation process as a needed and important process. For example, the strict system-driven innovation method is essentially rather boring: …should be called system-driven, really boring bureaucratic innovation (CEO).
Involving the citizens in the street labs was not straightforward; it entailed some work to attract them, which was ethical as well as aesthetic in nature.
Several of the interviewees stressed the importance of a community event where they served chilli con carne for the citizens, as well as other 'tricks': Then we had an evening where people came to eat chilli con carne; some had a barbeque, different events and activities where people could join voluntarily and discuss these thingskind of a community meeting

Dionysian-subversive Approach
Riot aspects are visible, related to the focus on pushing or transgressing the limits of the healthcare system without knowing exactly where to go. This kind of wild entrepreneurship, which the CEO called 'provocations', has to be constantly balanced with containing the innovation process within the extant practices: It is about balancing the provocation. Some can handle being provoked a lot more than others, and if you provoke the professionals at the wrong time with the wrong provocation, they will just leave. Then nothing will move forward.
However, the interviews show that the provocations are of great importance to the innovation activities as a way of prompting innovation. In the interview, the CEO also provoked the interviewers by offering surprising views and demonstrating a strong willingness to break boundaries. The consultancy house was founded without a clear idea of how the public sector would develop but was based on the feeling that 'intelligent' services were needed after a major municipal reform: 'After the structural reform in which the municipalities were merged, we thought: "The world needs a new consultancy house"' (CEO). However, it was only through concrete interactions with the municipality that certain needs were formulated, such as seeing the city as a living lab for healthcare changes with a commitment to asking citizens.

Case 2 -Towards New Inclusive Forms of Co-production
The organisation studied in Case 2 does not directly produce public services, but it seeks to define a new space for inclusiveness and co-production that impacts public service organisations and public value creation. Among others, the organisation studied in Case 2 has collaborated with a public activity centre and a hostel centre that provides temporary accommodation for adult homeless citizens who have problems with dependence on alcohol or drugs or both. The organisation is a honey-producing social enterprise promoting a philosophy of co-production and inclusive community. A source of inspiration that was stressed in the interviews was Donna Haraway's (2016) philosophy of inter-connections across and between sectors, species, spaces and social communities.
The enterprise rents beehives to public, private and social organisations in the capital of Denmark. It also conducts beekeeping and honey production 16 NJSR -Nordic Journal of Social Research Vol. 12, 2021 Special issue: Public sector Innovation -Conceptual and Methodological Implications courses in schools and non-profit housing organisations and organises workshops and events at its location situated between a public prison, a home for homeless people and an activity centre for people with alcohol and drug problems. The organization has also worked with two homeless persons from an employment centre, a collaboration that was terminated.

Apollonian Approach
The 'We must insist on lives lived and stories told for flourishing and abundance, in the teeth of rampaging destruction and impoverishment. We must cultivate the ability to re-imagine wealth, learn practical healing of bodies, minds and spaces and stitch together improbable collaborations.' The CEO argued that through pollination and a relationship with humans, honeybees could stimulate curiosity, spur people to cut across boundaries and challenge normal categories of consumption and production. As such, bees, humans and plants become multi-species teams across societal sectors and silos, connected by meaningful relationships.

Dionysian-pragmatic Approach
Although this paradigm is specifically adopted as a driver of change and innovation, honey production is just one way to start. A paradigm change must occur through many changes that link people together in an enabling manner: It is easier to act your way into new ways of thinking than to think your way into new ways of acting…we can create structures now that will allow new systems to emerge.
This pragmatism does not change the commitment to the overall broad goal but rather lies in the method of innovation. There is no one way of creating

Dionysian-aesthetic Approach
The aesthetic, artistic dimension of community and community building is strongly stressed by this enterprise through its emphasis on honey, bees and flowers and by inviting volunteers with artistic skills such as brewing the 'most fantastic mjød (mead)' or 'ideas of how to make baklava with honey from the rooftops. … all these peculiar artistic passions that people have outside the conventional work market, outside any conventional measurement of what growth should be' (CEO). Honey is not 'seen as a product in itself, but as an invitation to plant a flower, to see the environment in a new way, to connect the homeless person or the refugee from Syria with the buttered toast and honey that you might enjoy in your kitchen with your children' (Video 1).

Dionysian-subversive Approach
How to reach the overall goal is described as an act of 'staying with the trouble'. The CEO argues that we are living in times of ecological destruction and impoverishment, which call for new ways of organising and producing. This is framed within the mindset of Donna Haraway (2016), who introduced the concepts of making-kin and making-with, or sympoiesis, which are necessary if we are 'to stay with the trouble' of current times (Haraway, 2016).
To make kin is to engage in logical relations across species based on the notion of sympoieses, that is, 'collectively producing systems that do not have self-defined spatial or temporal boundaries'. The reference to Harraway implies a rejection of the system boundaries usually placed between people, public/private organisations, humans and non-humans.

Summary of the Two Case Vignettes
Both cases contain elements of the Apollonian and Dionysian approaches to innovation. They both depart from the aim of making radical changes by introducing changes that are contained within a practice structure. In Case 1, the change process was contained in host organisations (the public hospital, the municipality), and in Case 2 in wider goals of co-production and

Discussion and Conclusion
This paper examined two intertwined ways in which innovation can transpire in public service practices: the Apollonian and Dionysian practice-approaches.
The Apollonian approach describes actors as aligned around a practice structure or 'teleoaffective' structures, seeking to contain innovation within these structures. The Dionysian approach depicts actors as aligned around heterogeneous sets of ideas and materials that build structures from events, navigating through the emotional and aesthetic bonds of attachment and having the will to change without knowing exactly where they are going.
The paper contributes to practice-based research by pointing out the need to deal with these wider practice-dynamics. Practice-based research has mostly focused on the innovation of practice (cf. Brown and Duguid, 1991;Pantzar and Shove, 2010). Arguably, there is a need to apply practice-based research to uncover the actual practices of innovation, especially, how these practices are not limited to local and situated changes but take place in larger systemic contexts.
The framework suggests an intersection between contained, formal innovation practice-approaches and more informal wide-ranging engagements in practices. The answer to what it means to say that innovation is practicebased, in response to the first research question, is that practice-approaches co-exist in complex, paradoxical ways that pose challenges for management and public democracy and for the identification of interventions that lead to requested significant changes. Future research should investigate the broad, rich interest in public innovation activities not limited to actors' alignment around specific practices. Future avenues of research along these lines can include the following two approaches. First, more empirical research is needed to understand the intertwined innovation practices that go beyond collaborative or consensusoriented approaches. We need to know more about how practices impact each other and how interactions between actors across various practices can be described conceptually; how practices with formal authority and direct policy power in, for example, healthcare are intertwined with family practices, transportation practices, eating practices, experience practices, and so on.
Zooming in on small nexuses of change but also zooming out to view the larger structures and finding relevant concepts to describe them is required (Nicolini, 2009;Schatzki, 2016